Inner Circle English - Definition and Examples

Inner Circle English s The Inner Circle is made up of countries in which English is the first or the dominant language. These countries include Australia, Britain, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, and the United States. Also called the core English-speaking countries. The inner circle is one of the three concentric circles of World English  identified by linguist Braj Kachru in Standards, Codification and Sociolinguistic Realism: The English Language in the Outer Circle (1985). Kachru describes the inner circle as  Ã¢â‚¬Å"the traditional bases of English, dominated by the mother tongue varieties of the language.† The labels inner, outer, and expanding  circles represent the type of spread, the patterns of acquisition, and the functional allocation of the English language in diverse cultural contexts. These labels remain controversial. What is the Inner Circle? Inner circle nations are countries where English is spoken as a first language (mother tongue or L1). They are very often nations to which very large numbers of people migrated from the U.K. For example, the U.S. and Australia are inner circle nations...Whether a country is in the inner, outer, or expanding circle ... has little to do with geography but more to do with history, migration patterns and language policy... [W]hile Kachrus model does not suggest that one variety is better than any other, inner circle nations are, in fact, perceived as having greater ownership over the language, in that they have inherited English as their L1. Even among inner circle nations, not all nations can claim authenticity of the English language. The U.K. is widely perceived as being the origin of the English language and is seen as the authority on what counts as standard English; inner circle nations tend to be regarded as authentic speakers of English (Evans 2005). However, . . . the English us ed even in inner circle nations is not homogenous.  (Annabelle Mooney and Betsy Evans,  Language, Society and Power: An Introduction, 4th ed. Routledge, 2015) Language Norms The most generally held view is that the Inner Circle (eg. UK, US) is norm-providing; this means that English language norms are developed in these countries and spread outwards. The Outer Circle (mainly New Commonwealth countries)   is norm-developing, easily adopting and perhaps developing its own norms. The Expanding Circle (which includes much of the rest of the world) is norm-dependent, because it relies on the standards set by native speakers in the Inner Circle. This is a one-directional flow and learners of English as a foreign language in the Expanding Circle look to the standards set in the Inner and Outer Circles.​  (Mike Gould and Marilyn Rankin,  Cambridge International AS and A Level English Language. Cambridge University Press, 2014)  Ã‚   In the so-called inner circle English is multifunctional, transmitted through the family and maintained by governmental or quasi-governmental agencies (e.g. media, school, etc.), and is the language of the dominant culture. The outer circle contains countries (usually multilingual) colonized by English-speaking powers. English is typically not the language of the home, but transmitted through the school, and has become part of the countrys chief institutions. Norms come officially from the inner circle, but local norms also play a powerful role in dictating everyday usage.  (Suzanne Romaine, Global English: From Island Tongue to World Language. The Handbook of the History of English, ed. by Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Blackwell, 2006)[W]hile inner circle nations are now well in the minority among users of English, they still exert strong proprietary rights over the language in terms of norms. This applies far more to discourse patterns than to grammatical rules or pronunciat ion norms (the latter varying considerably between the inner circle countries in any case). By discourse patterns, I mean the way spoken and written discourse is organised. In many fields of scholarship, the major international journals are now published entirely in English. . . . At present, English speakers from inner circle countries still hold a great deal of control in terms of assessing contributions and reviewing books in English.  (Hugh Stretton, Australia Fair. UNSW Press, 2005) Problems With the World Englishes Model [W]ith regard to inner circle Englishes in particular, the model ignores the fact that although there is relatively little differentiation between written norms, this is not the case between spoken norms. The model, thus, in its broad categorisation of varieties according to large geographical areas, does not take into account the considerable spoken dialectal variation within each of the varieties identified (e.g., American English, British English, Australian English)...Secondly, a problem exists with the World Englishes model because of its reliance on a fundamental distinction between native speakers of English (i.e., from the inner circle) and non-native speakers of English (i.e., from the outer and expanding circles). There is a problem with this distinction because attempts so far at precise definitions of the terms native speaker (NS) and non-native speaker (NNS) have proved highly controversial ...Thirdly, Singh et al. (1995:284) believe that the labelling of inner circle (o ld) English and outer circle (new) English is overly value-laden since it suggests that older Englishes are more truly English than those historically younger varieties in the outer circle. Such a distinction seems even more problematic because, . . . historically, all varieties of English other than English English are transpalnted.(Robert M. McKenzie,  The Social Psychology of English as a Global Language. Springer, 2010)

How to Talk Sports in French

How to Talk Sports in French Are you that fan of European sports who gets up in the wee hours to watch games in France? If you just love sports in general or simply want to know more about talking sports in French, weve got you covered. We have the names of the sports, the verbs to use with each, and the terms for  players (usually with both masculine and feminine forms), equipment, and playing fields. Its a long, useful list, so buckle up. Note that we discuss exceptionally popular French sports like soccer, tennis, and cycling elsewhere on their own pages. Many of the words below are linked to audio files. Simply click on the link to hear the correct pronunciation and then repeat it a few times to commit it to memory. Names of Sports (Noms de sports) Note that, in many instances, the French and English words are nearly identical. archery le tir l'arc baseball le base-ball basketball (specific terms below) le basket biking or cycling le cyclisme boxing la boxe diving la plongà ©e fishing la pà ªche football le football amà ©ricain golf (specific terms below) le golf (ice) hockey (specific terms below) le hockey (sur glace) jogging le jogging sailing la voile skating le patinage rollerskating le patin roulettes or le skating skiing (specific terms below) le ski cross-country skiing le ski de randonnà ©e or le ski de fond downhill skiing le ski de descente or le ski de piste water skiing le ski nautique soccer le foot(ball) swimming la natation tennis le tennis volleyball le volley(ball) wrestling la lutte The French Verbs Used With Sports In French, playing or doing sports is normally expressed with  jouer au  or  faire. Sports That Use Jouer au 1. Jouer au  (to play): Just add the name of the sport after the verb, like this: to play golf   jouer au golfto play hockey   jouer au hockey to play... jouer au... baseball base-ball basketball basket soccer foot(ball) football football amà ©ricain golf golf hockey hockey tennis tennis volleyball volley(ball) Sports That Use Faire 2.  Faire  (to do):  The verb  is usually followed by de article noun, like this: to swim   faire de la natationto do archery    faire du tir  Ã‚  larc ​There are exceptions where just the noun is used, without the partitive and article. For example: to hike faire  une randonnà ©e Some sports also have their own verb, which is a one-word verb form of the noun. Those are listed in the right-hand column below. For example: to wrestle   faire de la lutte  or  lutter Notice that le golf can use either jouer au or faire and is on both  lists. to do... faire... or this to box de la boxe boxer to ride a horse du cheval to bike du cyclisme or monter sur bicyclette rouler to golf du golf to jog du jogging to wrestle de la lutte lutter to swim de la natation nager to skate du patin(age) patiner to inline skate du patin roulettes or du skating to dive de la plongà ©e plonger to ski du ski skier to downhill ski du ski de descente or du ski de piste to cross country ski du ski de randonnà ©e or du ski de fond to water ski du ski nautique to shoot archery du tir l'arc to sail de la voile to hike une randonnà ©e Anomaly: la  Pà ªche Uses Aller But,  la  pà ªche uses neither of these verbs and goes on a separate list with aller, as in  aller   la pà ªche (to go fishing), or its used with its own verb  pà ªcher (to fish). to go... aller... or this to go fishing la pà ªche pà ªcher Basketball (Le Basket) If you like basketball, youll enjoy learning essential basketball terms.  You can practice these words while playing or watching your teams. Learning a language is like sports: The more you practice, the better you get. Basketball  Team basketball team à ©quipe de basket basketball player basketteur (m) or basktteuse (f) guard arrià ¨re offensive player attaquant jumper sauteur Basketball Equipment   equipment matà ©riel basketball ballon de basket court terrain de jeu basket panier opponent's basket panier adverse rim, ring anneau backboard panneau Basketball Action to catch the ball attraper le ballon to block bloquer to dribble dribbler to steal the ball intercepter le ballon to handle the ball manier le ballon to guard a player marquer un joueur to pass passer Golf (Le Golf) You could practice this vocabulary the next time you hit the links. Golf Players golfer joueur de golf or golfeur (m)joeuse de golf or golfeuse (f) foursome quatuor The Golf Course golf course terrain / parcours de golf greens fee droit de jeu driving range terrain d'exercice fairway allà ©e grass bunker fosse d'herbe sand trap fosse de sable waste bunker fosse naturelle water hazard obstacle d'eau green vert hole trou Golf Equipment   equipment matà ©riel golf bag sac de golf caddie cadet(te) cart chariot, voiturette de golf golf ball balle de golf ball marker repà ¨re golf glove gant de golf set of clubs jeu de bà ¢tons de golf golf club club, crosse, canne (de golf) wood bois iron fer driver bois n ° 1 pitching wedge cocheur d'allà ©e sand wedge cocheur de sable putter fer droit Golf Action to golf faire du golf or jouer au golf tee tà © tee marker jalon de dà ©part handicap handicap golf stroke coup de golf swing à ©lan backswing montà ©e half swing demi-à ©lan chip approche roulà © pitch approche lobà © divot motte de gazon The Golf Score score card carte de pointage par normale birdie oiselet bogey boguey double bogey boguey double eagle aigle double eagle albatros hole in one trou d'un coup The Golf Ball ball trajectory trajectoire de balle hook crochet de gauche slice crochet de droite draw là ©ger crochet de gauche fade là ©ger crochet de droite Hockey (Le Hockey) Ice hockey, a popular sport in French-speaking Canada and elsewhere, has a special set of terms. Notice that when we speak of hockey players, French-speaking Canadians tend to use a different word than the French do. Both terms will be understood in both countries. Hockey Players hockey player hockeyeur/euse (France)joueur/euse de hockey (Canada) goalie gardien de but opponent adversaire The Hockey Rink   rink patinoire goal but or cage goal crease territoire de but Hockey Equipment equipment matà ©riel hockey stick crosse de hockey puck palet helmet casque protecteur face mask protecteur facial glove gant skate patin Hockey Action to play hockey jouer au hockey to check mettre en à ©chec to clear the puck dà ©gager le palet to score a goal marquer un but to shoot lancer or tirer Skiing (Le Ski) Skiing is another popular sport in many French-speaking countries. Types of Skiing and Skiers to ski faire du ski or skier cross-country skiing ski de fond downhill skiing ski de descente or ski aval cross-country skier skieur de fond or fondeur downhill skier descendeur forerunner ouvreur de piste freestyle libre classical classique jumping saut downhill descente giant slalom slalom gà ©ant slalom slalom super-G super gà ©ant Skiing Equipment equipment matà ©riel hat bonnet headband serre-tà ªte or bandeau goggles lunettes glove gant ski pole bà ¢ton de ski skis skis boot chaussure coverboot surchaussure binding fixation On the Hill ski course parcours de ski trail piste marked course piste balisà ©e hill tremplin or piste de saut start platform plate-forme de dà ©part length of the trail longueur de la piste flag fanion or drapeau jump tremplin mogul bosse finish time temps l'arrivà ©e control point poste de contrà ´le gate porte

Strategic Financial Concerns for a Typical International Investment Essay

Strategic Financial Concerns for a Typical International Investment Project - Essay Example International projects quintessentially engross a broader array of issues than domestic projects and efficaciously, the extrinsic movement from one's own business authority exclaims many unknowns. The factors that influence the investment decisions of the owner with international capital amenities can appear to be a bit intricate and may differ considerably from plan to plan. According to Walewski and Gibson, the accomplishment of a particular project can depend upon a comprehension of the stakes related to such projects. International projects with meticulous reference to investment which are not able to meet factors like possibilities, resources, and schedule often accrue in an array of influences with crucial financial, social, and political consequences (Walewski and Gibson, 2003). Most of the industry psychoanalysts like Hann and Diekmann construe to the fact that the globalization of international investment market facilitates with tremendous opportunities for business individuals to expand in to new-fangled foreign markets (Hann and Diekmann, 2002). Economic and financial stakes influence the selection of project delivery and documents where currency vacillation impersonates a vital role in resolving the segment of the project which can be contracted for represented overseas. According to Kumar et. al, factors like policy corruption is a critical factor in determining the currency crises (Kumar et. al, 1999). Innumerable risks and risk-associated procedures, when assessed by Dias and Ionnou, related to the fact that there are generally two kinds of risk: 1. Pure risk when there is likelihood for financial thrashing and no likelihood for financial gain 2. Tentative risk which is involved with the likelihood of both gains and thrashings (Dias and Ionnou, 1995). Many contracted projects are featured by the incongruity between the contracted date and the payment date (Mehrez and Regev, 1983). It is commonly viewed that such a situation is largely engrossed with ambiguities regarding the cost payments, both innate for the project and the investor who has to ensure sufficient funds for the payment time. However, it can be presumed that the decision maker is in possession of an assortment with both liquid as well as non-liquid assets, and it is exorbitantly pricey to bring into use the non-liquid assets in order to finance the projects. Moreover, the liquid assets or the budget are adequate to the project and can be somewhat deferred for the project, thereby, springing a low return, and partly be utilized for an optional long series of Financial Plan with high

People Obsessed With Their Appearance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

People Obsessed With Their Appearance - Essay Example Repetition of these standards of attractiveness in both genders in media sustained over years has finally convinced the audiences that in order to be classified as attractive, they need to start working towards fulfilling these criteria of beauty. Surgery is the most effective and easiest but expensive way of enhancing one’s looks. Most of the people who can afford a surgery go for it because they want at least one feature in their body to be improved. Again, media is responsible for this since a vast majority of the celebrities both male and female have undergone botox surgeries to modify the shape of their nose or lips, be they from Hollywood or Bollywood or any other film industry. Since the celebrities are taken as models by the general public, they follow them in the same way thus ending up getting surgeries. â€Å"Americans had nearly 14m cosmetic procedures last year, spending $10.1bn in the process - on collagen and botox injections, breast implants, buttock lifts and nose jobs† (â€Å"US plastic surgery†). Unfortunately, not every surgery results in an improvement in the facial feature. Countless cases of surgeries gone wrong can be witnessed on Google images. People know that undergoing a surgery can be risky and the damages last forever, but this warning has no effect on the determination of many to undergo the surgery. In the recent years, many new techniques of fat removal have surfaced. These techniques include but are not limited to fat removal with liposuction, and incision.

Discovering Church Membership Essay Example for Free

Discovering Church Membership Essay Superman, Batman and Robin, Wonder Woman, Spiderman, Fantastic four, and The Incredibles are the examples of the popular superheroes that saved people in the hands of evil. Sometimes you’re dreaming to be one of them, strong, fast, flying, invisible and untouchable. But the truth is that all superheroes are not true, they are just a creature and outcome of imaginative mind. They only exist in the world of entertainment. No superhero can save us from death, even a great doctor, or a president, neither a five star general. Certainly, we are all going to leave this world, we will depart from our family, one day we’re going to lose our senses, we cannot talk, we can’t see, our heart will stop pumping and beating, our intelligent mind will be perish, our body will go back to dust. It sounds terrible, terrified, and its scary. But the question is, are you ready for that moment. No one knows what will happen in the future, for next minutes or seconds of our life. For instance, your going to die tonight, where do you think is your destination? Where is your soul heading of? Heaven or hell? Many people are not interested to discuss and disregard this topic because for some of them it is corny, but, we should address this matter properly because life after death is eternal, once you’re there you cannot go back or transfer to the other side. Life is uncertain, that’s why we need the assurance of salvation that we are not going to hell! We have to be saved, we need a savior, even Superman and Zorro needs the Lord, just like a superhero who needs a true Knights and Shining Armor! We need God, The Lord Jesus Christ! The Bible says: I am the way, the truth, and the life: no man cometh unto the Father but by me. (John 14:6) God made us as a reflection of His image, we are His masterpiece! He gave us the whole thing we need and allowed us to administer the earth according to His purpose for the reason that God loves us. (Genesis 1:26-30, Jeremiah 31:3, Ephesians 1: 4-5) He wants us to get pleasure from the splendor and goodness of His creation. Yet, we are not contented. And the sins entered! Since man has the natural behavior of being a master to his own self and to do the things that can completely fulfill his desire, despite the wonderful plan of God for us we intend to pursue what we long for, whether it is right or wrong. We are not pleased in Gods amazing loved, we disobeyed Him, subsequently, our own will took place and not the intention of God in our life, what is the significance of having the entire world by our personal power but loses our very own soul. As for what the Bible says: Wherefore, as by one man sin entered into the world, and death by sin; and so death passed upon all men, for that all have sinned: (Romans 5:12) If someone acclaimed that he is a righteous man he’s cheating his own self, and he is condemning God of being a hypocrite. Nobody can say that he doesn’t commit any sin and portray as clean because according to the Bible: â€Å"If we say that we never sin. We are only fooling ourselves, and refuse to accept the truth. † (1 John 1:8). For all have sinned, and come short of the glory of God; (Romans 3:23) If we say that we have not sinned, we make him a liar, and his word is not in us. (1 John 1:10) Sins hinder us to see the goodness of God. It ruins our bonding to Him. It makes us afraid the Lord and lives separately from His plan. â€Å"The trouble is that your sins have cut you off from God. † (Isaiah 59:2) Just a simple lie of not telling the truth that you have sinned is a sin or not following the rules and regulations of your school, even not obeying the standard given by the government or by our parents is a sin. Let us say that you are an ordinary teenager at the age of 15 who render a single sin in a day, it makes 7 sins in a week, 30 sins in a month and huge 365 sins for the whole year. If we count your sins when you reached the age of 7 up to now, it has a result of 3,285 sins. What if you are committing more than one sin in a day and you are more than fifteen years of age now? This is the nature of human being to fall into sin and the consequence of this is eternal death in the Hades. â€Å"For the wages of sin is death. † (Romans 6:23a) Whether we like it or not, we can do nothing to save ourselves from the burning hell. The good deeds we’re doing are not enough for us to be saved. Even if we go to church everyday, do a charity works, help the needy, it’s all useless. The key to salvation is only the grace of God and having faith on Him. He is the answer and not the things we’ve trying to impose. We’re just getting tired and stressed of doing something but in the end all of our efforts are in vain. The worst of it is that it leads us to nowhere. â€Å"There are ways that seem right to man, but they only end in death. † (Proverbs 16:25) â€Å"For it is by grace you are saved, through faith – and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God not by works so that no one can boast. † (Ephesians 2:8-9) But because God Almighty is faithful and He truly loves us He gave us His only begotten son for us to be saved. (John 3:16) Jesus decided to follow the commandment of His father in Heaven, Jesus came to finish God’s work of salvation. As the Bible says: â€Å"Then Jesus explained: â€Å"My nourishment comes from doing the will of God, who sent me and from finishing his work† (John 4:34) He accepted all the indictments and blasphemies without any regrets. Thousands of years ago Jesus Christ carried all our sins. He picked up the cross to the Calvary. He received hundreds of strips from the whips and shed His precious blood. Nailed on the cross and died for you and me! After three days arose again, resurrected from the grave and fulfilled His promise! (John chapter 19-21) (Matthew chapter 27-28) We needed not to punish ourselves. God didn’t required or told us to also shed our blood for our own salvation because Jesus did it already! It is finished, Jesus said! The words He declared (it is finished) means that our sins are fully paid by Him and paid the full penalty for our sins. With His death, the complex sacrificial system ended because Jesus took all sin upon himself. (John 19:30) Jesus was the absolute and last sacrifice for the transgressions of all the people. Now we can freely approach God because of what Jesus did for us. Those who believe in Jesus’ death and resurrection can live eternally with God and escape the penalty that comes from sin; we only need to do the following: 1. Acknowledge that we are a sinner. Wherefore, as by one man sin entered into the world, and death by sin; and so death passed upon all men, for that all have sinned: (Romans 5:12) If we say that we have not sinned, we make him a liar, and his word is not in us. (1 John 1:10) 2. Repent in our transgressions. Jesus said: I tell you, except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish. (Luke 13:5) And the times of this ignorance God winked at; but now command all men every where to repent: (Acts 17:30) 3. Accept that Jesus Christ died for you, was buried, and rose from the dead. For God so loved the world that he gave his only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have everlasting life. (John 3:16) But God commend his love toward us, in that, while we were yet sinners. Christ died for us. (Romans 5:8) That if thou shall confess with thy mouth the Lord Jesus, and shall believe in your heart that God hath raised him from the dead, thou shall be saved. (Romans 10:9) 4. Request Jesus as personal savior through prayer For with the heart man believeth unto righteousness; and with the mouth confession is made unto salvation. (Romans 10:10) For whosoever shall call upon the name of the Lord shall be saved. (Romans 10:13) What to pray: Dear God, I am a sinner and need forgiveness. I believe that Jesus Christ shed His precious blood and died for my sin. I am willing to turn from sin. I now invite Christ to come into my heart and life as my personal Savior. But as many as received him, to them gave he power to become the sons of God, even to them that believe on his name: John 1:12) Therefore if any man be in Christ, he is a new creature: old things are passed away; behold all things are become new. (2 Corinthians 5:17) Now is the time that God is knocking in our heart. He wants to put our name in the book of Heaven. Jesus wants us to follow Him. It doesn’t mean that accepting Jesus in our heart makes us weird, but instead it makes us a son of God! We are no longer a gentile but a truly residence of Heaven. Don’t let this opportunity pass away, experience His presence! Original Gods plan was for us to give glory to Him and to join Him in the throne of the Almighty God. Though we sinned, God is so faithful and just to forgive us! Through prayer we can encounter His presence. He will speak to our heart just listen for what His saying, talk to God, just admit that we are a sinner, ask for forgiveness and let Jesus rule our life! Make Him as our personal God and Savior, and experience His amazing love and abundant blessing! After we accepted Christ, read His word (Bible) everyday, find a Christ and Bible centered church. Testify His goodness and show all the people in the world that we already met a true and loving superhero! Superhero of superman and Batman, and can be a superhero of all, Jesus Christ Our Lord and Savior! Works Cited Warren, Rick. â€Å"Discovering Church Membership† Class 101: 3-8 http://www. ccc. org. ph Porter, Robert Ford. â€Å"Gods Simple Plan† (1991) http://www. godssimpleplan. org/gsps-english. html Gods Plan of Salvation (1984-2009) http://www. chick. com/information/general/salvation. asp

Music as Cultural Criticism Essays -- Music Musical Culture History Es

Music as Cultural Criticism Works Cited Not Included In his article â€Å"Daily Life in Black Africa: Elements for a Critique,† author Paulin Houtondji offers his perceptions of several aspects of life in Africa. His statements are explicit, observant, harsh, and backed up with examples and anecdotes. Many African pop musicians provide similarly critical assessments of various aspects of African life, but they choose to do so in a much subtler way. Houtondji’s criticism of Africa for its serious failure is similar to that of artists like musician E.T. Mensah, who uses upbeat music to lessen the sting of his subversive lyrics. In fact, so deceivingly happy is the sound of the music that missing the entire message of the song is highly possible. His candor and blatancy in expressing his opinion, however, also parallels the work of artists like Fela Kuti, Unsung Heroes, and Prophets of Da City. Though Houtondji and many musicians share the common goal of improving society, or at least highlighting its flaws, the parties focus on different aspects of society, and probably garner different results. To a Western reader, Houtondji and his writings may seem more serious, scholarly, and even competent, even for such a simple reason as a societal bias towards the written word over the spoken. On the other hand, taking into account the low literacy rates in much of Africa, as well as the aural language, the situation may be the opposite in Africa. The spoken, or sung, word should prove highly effective in addressing social wrongs, suggesting societal change, or calling people to action. Using words as weapons is not uncommon, and they are effective both set to music and written. A preliminary reading of Houtondji’s article leads to a c... ...such injustices. Words are often used as effective weapons in written and verbal war. Though seemingly non-violent, these conflicts contain elements of violence, and can thus prove highly painful. In his article â€Å"Daily Life in Black Africa: Elements for a Critique,† author Paulin Houtondji criticizes superficial problems in daily life in Africa, while hinting at the issues of the bigger picture. Similar to this approach, E.T. Mensah uses music to soften the blow of his loaded words. Other pop musicians, such as Fela Kuti, choose not to be sensitive to their audiences, and instead assault them with politically charged lyrics, calling them to action and demanding social change. Both approaches and styles are effective, but an audience’s receptiveness and perception may be the most important determining factors of an artist’s success in issuing a call for change.

Evaluate Research on Conformity Making Reference to 2 Studies Essay

Conformity is the tendency to adjust one’s thoughts, feelings or behaviour in ways that are in agreement with those of a particular individual or group, or with accepted standards about how a person should behave in specific situations (social norms). It is also the key ways that a society or culture passes down its values or behaviours to its peers through an indirect form of social influence. Deusch and Gerald (1995) first presented that the reasons of people conforming is due to two factors that are information social influence and normative social influences. Information social influence is based on the ways people cognitively process information about specific situations. Normative social influence is based on our nature as social animals, and our need to be accepted and to ‘belong’ in society. Individuals often conform to avoid rejection and gain social approval within society. Festinger (1954) also agreed that people evaluate their own opinions and judgement through social comparisons, which is when the individual compares themselves to the peers around them When one realizes that others are not behaving in the same way, or think differently, it leads to anxiety, which is known as cognitive dissonance. In order to test for conformity, Asch carried a test where the subject was given a simple task of matching a length of line to one of three other comparison lines. The control subjects (who were able to take the test alone without any confederates) that served as the comparison to the variable (the individual who was tested for conformity) made almost no errors. In the experimental condition, one individual was tested but were surrounded by seven other confederates of the experimenter, who were told to give wrong estimates almost 70% of the trials. The subject was also second to last giving their answers, so that they were faced either giving their own opinion or conforming to the group. The average rate of conformity was 32%. 74% conformed at least once and 26% never conformed. In order to identity factors influencing conformity, Asch conducted variations to his experiment. Asch found out that with only one confederate, only 3% of the participant conformed, and with two confederates the rate rose to 14% and with three confederates, it rose to 32%. Larger groups did not increase the rate of conformity. Unanimity was an another factor, where conformity was more prominent when all the confederates agreed. If one of the confederates disagreed, the participant was less likely to conform. The difficulty of the task also increased conformity. Also when the participant was given the choice to write down their response, conformity decreased. Confidence and self-esteem was another significant role in influencing the participants, as people with high confidence strongly believed in their opinion, and were less likely to conform. However, even the participants that did not conform still felt strong social pressure. Although these results were quite reliable to a certain extent, there were multiple criticism towards the experiment. The experiment was considered ‘artificial’ with low ecological validity. There were also ‘demanding characteristics,’ where the participant may have changed their behaviour in order to please researchers. Also there was a lack in cultural diversity as the experiment may only represent the US in 1940-1950s. Because the individuals were placed in deception and anxiety, it also resulted in ethic concerns. Also, there were ethic concerns as the individuals were placed in deception and anxiety. Berry (1967) suggested that conformity is required by their respective survival level economics. Low food receiving societies tend to produce self-reliant independent individuals, while high food producing societies are group reliant and dependent. He also proved his theory by using a variation of Asch’s experiment through using samples of the Temne Sierra Leone and the Inuit people of Canada. Hunting and fishing in Eskimos show great tolerance in disciplining children, therefore resulting in independent and risk taking individuals. Rich farming Temne people apply strict disciplinary measures, resulting in more dependent and group reliant individuals. Therefore the experiment resulted that the Temne people of Sierra Leone conformed significantly more than the Inuit people of Canada, probably because of the economic differences. The Temne people usually had to survive on a single crop that is harvested by all the people in the society, therefore requiring each other’s trust and coordination of effort. . The culture also mainly focuses on agreement and harmony. Consensus is less present in Inuit culture as their economy is based on continual hunting and gathering on a relatively individual basis. However sometimes, there have been several examples of minority commitment to a view not held by the majority throughout the 20th century. This includes women’s right’s to vote in civil rights movement, environmental movement etc. Also research proved that minority opinions are significant in a group’s decision-making process. Groupthink happens when someone in a group suggest an idea, and everyone accepts the idea without considering other possible opinions It represents the group members having concordant opinions in an issue, resulting in not seeking alternative or disagreeing opinions, often because optimism prevents their decisions from becoming successful.

Why Do People Smoke?

Why Do People Smoke? Shourav Banik 1111263042 ENG 105: 14 Abdus Selim May 2, 2012 Why Do People Smoke? Introduction Smoking is one of the most popular habits among people today. All around the world we see people smoking. Even in Bangladesh the number of smokers is quite high. Especially around the university campus young adults are seen smoking frequently. It can be said that among every friend circle in universities we will find one or two smokers. My circle is no different also. Not only in universities, even around schools and colleges teenagers can be seen smoking.Offices and restaurants have their own smoking zone so that people can smoke without any kind of problems. Given this huge popularity of smoking one can only wonder the main reasons behind it? Smoking cigarettes has become a very common trend among people today. Although there are various bad effects of smoking cigarettes people find it very hard to quit smoking once they start. Now-a-days we see even very young boys a nd girls smoking cigarettes. The bad effects of smoking are known to almost everybody in the world today. There has been strong promotion against this deadly habit.In school students are constantly reminded of its bad consequences. But still we see people smoking. This is a habit that has been going on for many decades now. Several reasons drive a man towards smoking. Every person tends to think that they have different reason for smoking. But if we look closely we may see a general pattern among smokers. The main reason of smoking is psychological. History of Smoking First of all we will briefly look at the origin of smoking. Cigarettes have a long history. Tobacco, the main ingredient of cigarettes, first started growing in about 6,000 B.C. In 1 B. C. American Indians started using tobacco. At first they were mainly used because of religious reasons. It was also believed then that tobacco had healing powers and was used as a pain killer. Tobacco was brought to Europe by sailors. Randall (1999) reported that on 1492 Christopher Columbus was gifted with dried tobacco by the American Indians. Even in Europe the major reason for tobacco use was medical. It was believed that tobacco could heal almost everything, starting from bad breath to cancer. In 1571 a Spanish doctor called Nicolas Monardes even wrote a book describing its healing factors.In that he said tobacco could heal 36 health problems. In the 1600’s tobacco became very popular. It was even used as money in some parts of the world. But this was also the time when people started noticing the dangers of smoking. In 1610 Sir Francis Bacon reported that quitting smoking is difficult. In 1776, during the American Revolutionary War, tobacco helped finance the revolution. It was used as collateral for loans the Americans borrowed from France. Over the years scientists began to understand the main chemicals in tobacco. In 1826, nicotine was discovered.It was then completely realized that smoking is a d eadly habit. Around 1849 cigarettes became popular. Soldiers brought it to England from Russian and Turkish soldiers. During this time cigarettes were made from the scrap of other tobacco product. Chewing tobacco was one of them as it was quite popular among the Americans. In 1900’s cigarettes became a major tobacco product. During the two World Wars the use of cigarettes became very high. During these times women were targeted by the cigarette companies. In the Second World War (1939-1945) cigarettes were included in the soldiers’ C-Rations.Tobacco companies sent millions of cigarettes free of cost to the soldiers. And when the war broke they had a huge number of loyal customers. In the following years the real dangers of smoking started to come to being. Scientists linked smoking to cancer. Various health hazards were discovered. During this time the advertisements of cigarettes in television were being prohibited in Great Britain and in the U. S. In the recent years more bad effects of smoking have been found. But still lots of people are smoking even after knowing the bad effects (Randall, 1999).Reasons behind Smoking There are various reasons behind smoking. Like discussed previously, smoking was once considered as a healing treatment. But in modern society things have changed. Among several of reasons the main reasons of smoking are psychological. Radwan (n. d. ) said â€Å"Contrary to common beliefs people smoke cigarettes because of psychological reasons and not because of nicotine addition. † Starting from curiosity to depression, all the moods of human psyche play a large effect on smoking. Here we are going to see exactly what causes a person to smoke.The main psychological reasons are explained below. Depression Depression can play a big role in smoking. Whenever people get depressed they start to smoke. Again already depressed people might find difficulties in quitting smoking. For teen-agers depression triggers the starting o f smoking. McGovern et al. (2006) reported that â€Å"Teens who smoke regularly are almost twice as likely as teens who smoke occasionally to report high levels of depression†. The reasons for this kind of behavior have always been questioned. Only recently some explanations have come out. Cheong, Herkov, and Goodman (n. d. explained some of the reasons: New research has suggested that there may be something in cigarette smoke that has antidepressant properties, which explains why cigarette smoking is much more common among depressed patients. A survey of 3,000 individuals in the St. Louis area confirmed that lifetime frequency of major depression was more common among smokers than nonsmokers (6. 6 vs. 2. 9 percent) This study also demonstrated that smokers who reported at least one episode of major depression were less likely to succeed in smoking cessation programs than smokers without depression (14 vs. 8 percent). These findings have been confirmed many times over. These properties influence depressed people to smoke. Also it is often seen that whenever someone get depressed they start smoking heavily. So we can say that depression can strongly influence people into smoking. Curiosity One more reason why people especially teen-agers start smoking is curiosity. Young people often start to smoke just to find out how it tastes. Gaskell (2010) said â€Å"Curiosity may get the best of some teens who begin smoking just to find out what it feels like. † Especially children are often curious to do new or forbidden things.Whenever they go outside they see cigarettes being bought or sold. This all adds to their curiosity and they start smoking. The survey conducted for this research also yields the same result. This survey shows that almost 78% of students doing the survey have smoked out of curiosity at least for once. Some may think that young boys and girls actually smoke because it looks cool or to show off where the real reason is actually curiosi ty. Also some people start doing it as an act of rebellion (Pressmart Team, 2007). Peer Pressure Peer pressure also drives young people into smoking.Peer means friends who are of equal age. Maddox (2011) believes that peers play a large role in a person’s behavior: The behavior and choices of peers can influence the behavior and choices of others in their peer group, which may have either a negative or a positive impact, depending on the circumstances. When it comes to the unsafe behavior of smoking, the connection between young people who do or do not smoke and their peers is very strong. Whenever in a friend circle someone starts to smoke others also start doing it just because of not wanting to be left alone.Edwards (2011) reported that â€Å". . . not participating in an activity that others are participating in leaves impressionable teens feeling â€Å"left out† and more likely to pick up the habit merely to fit in with the group. † So it is often seen that people get the smoking habit just by trying to fit in socially. Evans (n. d. ) stated that â€Å"Often they feel encouraged and pressured or even teased and taunted into smoking. Teens also want to fit in with peer groups they admire-the â€Å"cool† kids-and many of them will do what â€Å"cool† kids do. So it is quite natural for young boys and girls to start smoking in order to get social acceptance. Influence of Others Young children look up to their elder brothers and sisters, parents and other familiar faces. So whenever they see their favorite figures smoking they get highly influenced to do so. It is believed they do so because children want be more like them (Evans, n. d. ). Parents also play a large role into this. Researches show that whenever mothers are depressed and smoke it is likely that their children will also take up this habit (Gaskell, 2010). Other studies also support this fact.Smokers in the family can lead children into smoking. Edwards (2011) reported: In addition, having family members who smoke increases the availability of cigarettes. Teenagers can simply take cigarettes from unattended packs around the house rather than putting effort into getting them another way. When a parent incorporates cigarettes into a teenager's life by having him bring the cigarettes, clean ashtrays or even light cigarettes, the teen is more likely to pick up the habit than an adolescent who does not handle cigarettes or cigarette paraphernalia on a regular basis.Not only relatives and friends sometimes even favorite actors or players can influence young people to smoke. Especially in movies when children see the heroes smoking they get influenced to do so. So role models also play a big part in the reasons of smoking. Stress Many chain smokers continue to smoke to relieve stress. Mature people when get addicted to smoking they don’t just continue to do it out of curiosity or peer pressure, they continue to do so to release stress or anxiety. Again some use smoking as a reliever of tension.It is very common among smokers to smoke whenever they feel stressed or anxiety. They often smoke in the beginning and the closing of the day. Ditcher (1947) said: The smoker has work to do, and he eases himself into the day's activities as pleasantly as possible. He gives himself a little consolation prize in advance, and at the same time manages to postpone the evil hour when he must begin his hard day's work. After a long tiring day of work they believe that smoking can make them feeling relaxed. Even during work it is not uncommon to take a break for a smoke.It can also work like a rewarding system. Orlopp (n. d. ) explains this fact by saying: Taking five at work to smoke a cigarette is a reward for a smoker, most wouldn't think of taking five if they didn't have a reason too. With smoking, you have that reason to kick back and enjoy yourself for a couple minutes. It helps give you that boost to get through a long day of work. So whenever smokers find themselves in trouble they tend to fix it by smoking. Some even go as far as to say that without having a puff of smoke they cannot think properly. Difficulties in Quitting SmokingHaving discussed the main psychological reason for smoking, now we will gaze a view on why it is hard to actually quit smoking. Every year lots and lots of smokers try to get rid of this nasty habit but more than half of them fail. Again there are some people who succeed in giving up smoking but after a while they go back to it. There is a very common saying among the smokers, â€Å"Quitting is easy, and I have quitted smoking many times. † So we can see that there many people who tried to quit but for some reason they just cannot stay away. There are several reasons behind this.Thompson (2011) reported that although nicotine makes it hard to quit smoking the main reason behind it is a bit more complex. Smoking makes several of psychological changes in a man’s l ife. People tend to make smoking a part of their everyday life. So whenever they try to quit smoking they also must deal with all parts of their life which can initiate the desire for smoking. One of the main difficulties in quitting is the withdrawal symptoms. It can vary differently among different people. The symptoms can be physical or psychological. Some of them are listed below: * Frustration Anxiety * Irritability * Dizziness * Sleep disturbances * Concentrating problems * Restlessness * Headaches * Fatigue * Depression These are the some of the many symptoms of withdrawal (Shaw, 2010b). So we can notice here that various psychological reasons that can cause smoking are also the effects of quitting. So smokers often find it hard and go back to smoking just to cope up with these problems. Another main obstacle in the fight against smoking is temptation. Some people find it very difficult to remain ex-smokers just because they cannot stay away from smoking.Shaw (2010a) has said : Dealing with temptations to smoke again often starts on the first day of quitting and can last for days or weeks. Many ex-smokers have an emotional attachment to smoking for a time. They may remember smoking while having a cup of coffee or alcoholic beverage. Smoking after a meal had been a common practice. Some people have friends still smoking or want to go to places where smoking is accepted. Also the availability of cigarettes now-a-days can make resisting cigarettes more difficult. Mostly in the streets of Bangladesh cigarettes is sold in plenty.People don’t have to walk very far to find a shop selling cigarettes. So just seeing all these cigarettes can awaken the temptation to smoke again. Another interesting theory about difficulties was described by Radwan (n. d. ). He said that people with â€Å"self image problem† always feel uneasy in crowded environment. They often do various embarrassing things and lose control. So to fix this problem people go back to s moking. As smoking demands repeating â€Å"certain fixed movements†, people can get back the sense of control they require. Thus for people like this quitting becomes extremely difficult.Survey Findings In order to prove the hypothesis that psychological reasons indeed play a large role into smoking a survey was conducted among 23 students of this university. Both male and female students were included in the survey. They produced significant results. And from the survey it seemed that curiosity, depression and influence from people are mainly responsible from smoking. An important question of this research was â€Å"does human psychology play a big role for people to smoke? † 14 people out of the 23 respondents thought that it played a big part.This means almost 61% people actually think that psychology is responsible for smoking. Figure 1 Among the 23 respondents 6 thought that it played moderate role. And only 3 people thought psychology is not the main reason for s moking. From the percentage point of view only 13% people go against this hypothesis. So this statistics strengthens the hypothesis that psychology is the main reason for smoking. Previously we discussed that teenagers start smoking mainly because of curiosity. In the survey a question was asked if they ever smoked out of curiosity. And out of 23 people 18 of them answered yes.So almost 79% people have smoked out curiosity. The reason of adolecence smoking also came out to be curiosity. Figure 2 So from the chart we can see that the majority of people (11 out of 23) believe that curiosity leads young people into smoking. It is also found out that 27% people believe that showing off also is another reason for smoking. 22% believes that peer pressure is another reason. So it seems that in Bangladesh curiosity and showing off are the main reasons of why young people start to smoke. Again they were asked that when do people tend to smoke more. 5 out 23 people believe that when someone i s tensed they smoke. Also 13 of them believe that depression causes them to smoke. And a small amount persons (4 out of 23) said that people smoke when they are happy. Figure 3 So from this chart we can come to the conclusion that tension and depression cause people to smoke more. From the survey another interesting result came out. It is popular belief that normal people smoke more than very successful and not successful people at all. This can point at the fact that a huge number of people smoke today as normal middle class people are the majority.Figure 4 As we can see the normal middle class constructs almost 35% of the total area of the pie and the lower middle class constructs 30%. So together, middle class people take up 65% of the whole area. Not successful people also hold 26% of the total area. So all in all we can say that middle class people smoke more. Also there were some other questions like â€Å"does influence of other actually play a role in smoking? † 91% o f the people thought that it did. And when they were asked who can influence them, most of them said friends and relatives.Again they were asked if they thought that smoking was fun. But most of them did not think that smoking was fun. Respondents also gave their own opinion about the reason of smoking. Most of them thought tension and depression are the main causes of smoking. So the survey produced some valuable results. The statistics from the survey proves that the main reasons those were discussed in the essay are quite correct. Conclusion Smoking today is a very popular habit among people today. Although it has severe consequences people still continue to do it. Various people do it for various reasons.But if we try to generalize the reasons we can actually see that most of them start smoking out of curiosity, peer pressure and influence. And when they get addicted they can’t quit because of the added stress, tension and depression. All of these are psychological reason s. It is true that there are some physical reasons also behind smoking but it’s the psychological reason that plays the bigger par. So it can be said that human psychology is the main reason behind smoking. References Cheong, J. , Herkov, M. , ; Goodman, W. (n. d. ). Depression and smoking.Retrieved from http://psychcentral. com/library/depression_smoking. htm Dichter, E. (1947). Why do we smoke cigarettes? In The psychology of everyday living. Retrieved from http://smokingsides. com/docs/whysmoke. html Edwards, C. (2011, June 14). Reasons why teenagers start smoking. Retrieved from http://www. livestrong. com/article/220035-reasons-why-teenagers-start-smoking/ Evans, A. (n. d. ). Smoking and teenagers. Retrieved from http://adrianaevans. hubpages. com/hub/Smoking-and-teenagers Gaskell, K. H. 2010, August 16). Reasons teenagers begin smoking. Retrieved from http://www. livestrong. com/article/207428-reasons-teenagers-begin-smoking/ Maddox, N. (2011, May 29). Smoking Peer Pre ssure Facts. Retrieved from http://www. livestrong. com/article/245384-smoking-peer-pressure-facts/ McGovern, J. A. , Rodriguez, D. , Patel, V. , Faith, M. S. , Rodgers, K. , ; Cuevas, J. (2006, April). How do psychological factors influence adolescent smoking progression? the evidence for indirect effects through tobacco advertising receptivity. Pediatrics, 117, 1216-1225, doi: 10. 542/peds. 2005-0808 Orlopp, B. (n. d. ). Why do people continue to smoke? stress, expression, social, loneliness. Why do people smoke? Retrieved from http://www. squidoo. com/why-do- people-smoke- Pressmart Team. (2007, December 4). Curiosity leads youth to smoke. Retrieved from http://www. pressmart. com/blog/2007/12/curiosity-leads-youth-to-smoke. html Radwan, M. F. (n. d. ). Why do people fail to quit smoking? Why do people smoke cigarettes. Retrieved from http://www. 2knowmyself. com/Why_do_people_smoke_cigarettes Randall, V. R. (1999, August 31).History of tobacco. Retrieved from http://academic. ud ayton. edu/health/syllabi/tobacco/history. htm Shaw, J. (2010a, July 4). Problems after you quit smoking. Retrieved from http://www. livestrong. com/article/165762-problems-after-you-quit-smoking/ Shaw, J. (2010b, June 9). Why is smoking hard to quit? Retrieved from http://www. livestrong. com/article/144259-why-is-smoking-hard-quit/ Thompson, D. J. (2011, June). Why is it so hard to quit smoking? Retrieved from http://www. everydayhealth. com/smoking-cessation/understanding/index. aspx

Probable changing role of trade union over the next ten years The WritePass Journal

Probable changing role of trade union over the next ten years Abstract Probable changing role of trade union over the next ten years ). Unions worldwide have been struggling to come to terms with these changes. Among the adversities facing unionism are unfavourable political and institutional conditions, structural changes in the economy, global competition, employer sponsored forms of employee participation, legal constraints and a growing trend in outsourcing among many others (Wright 2011). A combination of these challenges seems to have precipitated a significant fall in union membership. While there has been a decline in union membership, the challenge remains for the unions to find ways to prevent a further decline and weakening of trade unions’ position. The question then arises: what should unions do to prevent a further decline in membership and to consolidate on their current position? Incorporating cutting-edge research, this paper examines the probable changing role of trade union movement in the United Kingdom over the next ten years. As a starting point, the paper is going to define trade union, examine trade union responsibilities and practices, conduct a brief history of employee relations and analyze the basics of employees’ industrial relations. What is a trade union? Trade unions refer to organizations set up with the sole purpose of protecting and standing for the interest of its members in the workplace (Kelly 1998). Many activists view it as a movement for justice that is based on power emanating from workers’ solidarity (Kelly 1998). Their existence is mainly to voice concerns facing individual workers such as the work conditions, pay and conditions of employment. By bringing workers together, their power is magnified and they have a higher chance of exerting influence and voicing their opinions on matters regarding their work. Responsibilities of trade unions As noted above, the primary aim of trade unions is to protect and further the interests of its members. Trade unions are able to ensure this protection by: Obtaining satisfactory pay rates (Farnham 2000) Negotiating for their bonuses Ensuring satisfactory working conditions Negotiating for the renewal of their employment contracts and revision of their job descriptions where necessary (Farnham 2000). Negotiating for their promotion Securing adequate work facilities It is clear that the unions have the interests of workers at heart. It is also important to note that trade unions are part of the society and that they have played a central role in ensuring national integration. The other important responsibilities of trade unions include: Achieving industrial peace Ensuring national integration through minimizing the number of industrial disputes (Bach 2002). Inculcating discipline in the work environment Helping employees with social adjustments. That is, the unions help workers from different backgrounds adjust to the new rules, policies and working conditions. Incorporating a sense of corporate social responsibility in workers (Blanchflower 1996). The unions ability to effectively carry out these functions, however, depends on union density and membership. The smaller the number of union members, the lesser their power and influence in employment relationships. It is striking, however, to note that unions especially in the developed economies have in the past years lost membership. In the UK, for example, the union density stood at 30% during the year of 2000 but by 2010, union density had dropped to a figure of 27% (Wright 2011, p.2). This downward trend has been reported to be more pronounced in the private sector. Although membership in the private sector remained relatively stable, there still was a decline in union membership, albeit at a slower pace (Wright 2011, p.2). The explanations put forth for the decline in union membership have been manifold stressing certain political, social, economical, structural and institutional changes. These changes will be examined in detail in the sections below. Employee relations Undoubtedly many of us experience work as employees and as such managing the employment relationship with our employers is of critical importance. Given the relentless changes outlined above which have prompted the decline of union membership, the importance of employee and industrial relations cannot be sidelined. In this respect, employment relations concerns itself with the management and regulation of employment relationship. This term, which was traditionally conceived as industrial relations, is concerned with power distribution between management and employees (Bryson 2005). Traditionally, the term Industrial relations has been used in reference to the management of the relationship between trade unions and management, as well as management of associated processes such as industrial conflict, negotiation and consultation, and collective bargaining (Ebbinghaus 2002). The shift has largely been a result of a range of developments in the economic, political, social and legal context of employment relationship witnessed in the past few decades. The emergence of new techniques for managing employment relationship such as the HRM, combined with structural changes to a service dominated economy, changing social attitudes, employer sponsored forms of participation and a decline in union power have all resulted in a more diverse employment landscape. Changing nature of employment relations Explanations for the decline in union membership have been attributed to the changing nature of employment relations. Undeniably, employee relations in the past 10   years centered on trade unionism, industrial disputes and collective bargaining. Trade unions were viewed to a large extent as workplace adversaries that negotiated with employers on matters regarding employees work (Gennard 2005). The relationship between employer and individual employee was perceived as secondary. This is no longer the case in today’s employment relationship as the development of new techniques to managing employment relationships such as the HRM, have led to a steady decline in union power and influence (Wright 2011). Unlike in the past, tripartism, strikes and collective bargaining have lesser relevance in the current employment relationship and this has led to a decline in union membership. This is evident from the Workplace Employee Relations Survey conducted in 1998. According to the findings obtained from this survey, 47% of the workplaces in UK had no union members (Wrights 2011, p.5). Moreover, unlike in the past where arrangements could be made between an employer and trade union to recognize union membership as a prerequisite to employment; todays legislative changes have led to an end in this arrangement (Craden Hall-Jones 2012). Trade unions bargaining power has shrunk dramatically in the recent years given the changing societal attitude and the new forms of development   which have provided employers with the bargaining initiative and extended to them unilateral control over the workplace. According to Taylor (2012), currently only an estimate of around a third of employees in the UK have their pay and conditions determined through collective bargaining agreements. This is in sharp contrast with the preceding years where this number was significantly large. In 1984, for example, the percentage of British employees who had their pay determined through collective bargaining agreements was 70% (Taylor 2012). This indicates a decline in the union’s bargaining power over the years. This has further been compounded by the break-up of national bargaining structures, legal constraints imposed on industrial actions and the changing societal attitudes towards unionism; all of which have precipitated the downward trend. Moreover, instead of reacting to and accommodating unionism managers have also become innovative, developing new techniques to manage employment relations such as the HRM. Research has confirmed that this is one of the main reasons behind the decline in union membership.   Due to the development and implementation of new techniques of managing employment relations such as the HRM, the number of union members in the UK has continued to decline. This can be seen in a research conducted by CIPD in 2004 on the changing nature of employee relations work in organizations in the UK.   Interviews with HR executives from the leading organizations in the UK formed the basis of this study. From this study, it was found that the role of the trade unions and their collective bargaining power had significantly declined (CIPD 2012). Based on the analysis, the study was forced to conclude that a further decline in union was more likely to happen in the near future. Undeniably, the driving force for the downward trend has been the changing nature of employee relations. There has been a shift in focus of employee relations from working with trade unions to a more contemporary focus on improving employee participation and business performance without the need for unions. In order to explore on the probable changing role of trade unions in the UK over the next 10 years, we are going to conduct a PEST analysis of trade union in the present times. PEST Analysis Among the range of issues that will be taken into account are: Political factors Economic factors Technological factors And Social factors Political factors Political factors, in this context, include legislation and government policies as well as foreign influences especially from the EU. In the past, trade unions were protected from the law of conspiracy and they had a right to picket peacefully (Bach 2002). However, a series of strike actions in the 1970s culminated in the drive for ‘anti-union laws’ which have since undermined the position and the role of the unions (Bach 2002). Legal restrictions imposed on the unions against recruiting new members have thus contributed to the downward trend. In addition, unions have generally been cut out of the political loop. Furthermore, the integration of most European countries has changed the environment in which trade unions act (Blaschke 2000). Over the past two decades, this integration has moved beyond its narrow economic basis to impact on other key areas such as social policies, macroeconomic policies and industrial relations (Blaschke 2000). This expansion is anticipated to change the structure facing unions by creating challenges as well as opportunities. The integration is likely to undermine existing national trade union arrangements and at the same time create a new arena of policy that is open to influence from trade unions. Economic factors Fragmentations in the labour market, enterprise bargaining and a shift   to individual contracts as well as the growing trend of outsourcing to other firms have also been reported to have precipitated into the decline of union membership (Ebbinghaus 2002). Moreover, the growth in ‘atypical’ and indirect forms of employment including self-employment and agency labour has also been suggested to have contributed to the weakening of the bargaining power of trade unions (Wright 2011). These forms of atypical and indirect employment have been facilitated by an increase in migration and workforce participation. Representing such workers in atypical jobs has been quite challenging to trade unions. Such cases of atypical and indirect employment have not only been a challenge for the unions, but have also presented challenges to regulators and enforcement bodies mandated with the responsibility of upholding labour standards. The downward trend in unionism is also attributed to the structural changes in the economy. Over the past few years, the resolution of industrial conflict has been given less priority and the focus of government has shifted to the international performance of national economies (Craden Hall-Jones 2012). The threat of communism seems to be fading away. In addition global competition has made cost-reduction increasingly important for management (Craden Hall-Jones 2012). This has resulted in a change of focus of IR policy. This is expected to continue over the next ten years with the aim of Industrial Relation policy likely to change from being a mechanism of avoiding industrial conflicts to one that is more focused on enhancing competitiveness (Craden Hall-Jones 2012). Given that this change has received overwhelming support from the government, it is obvious that the management priorities will increasingly change and the unions will be expected to justify their existence, perhaps   in terms of added value in the workplace. Social changes When considering the reasons behind the decline in union membership, some aspects of social origin must be taken account of. Ideally, in this case, the attitude of employees and the general public towards unionism matter a lot. However, public opinion on the importance of trade unions in employee relations seems somewhat vague. Some have shown mild support for trade unions whereas others have remained on stout opposition. What is clear, however, is the changing management attitude towards trade unionism in the UK. The change in management attitude from negotiating with the union representatives towards negotiating with employees on an individual basis seems to have contributed to this downward trend (Gennard 2005). Attitudes to work and towards trade union recognition have changed over time. This is also anticipated to continue to impact on trade unionism in the UK over the next ten years. The focus of employee relations in the near future is expected to be more on individual employee rather than employees as a collective body. Technological factors The decline is also attributed to rapid development and implementation of easily transferable technologies. Rapid technological changes have created problems in the domain of industrial relations given their impact on employment and the nature of skills (Craden Hall-Jones 2012). Undeniably, this change has received an enormous amount of resistance from the trade unions due to fears of unemployment and redundancy of the workers. For example, the trend of outsourcing of non-core activities of a firm to other organizations has contributed to the decline in union’s collective bargaining power (Wright 2011). Outsourcing tends to affect the relationship between a firm and trade union as it provides the firm with the bargaining initiative, extending to the firm unilateral control over the workplace. The implementation of such transferrable technologies weakens the unions. Prospects of union revival Given the various legislative changes and restrictions imposed against industrial actions, one may ponder whether there is possibility for the government in the near future to restore good relations with trade unions and whether there is a possibility for union revival. Will unions still be perceived by the government as conspirators? Are trade unions going to be viewed forever as bodies to be tightly controlled by government regulation? How will the government restore good relations with trade unions?   And, are we likely to see prospects for union revival with the power that they once wielded? Most of the restrictions were however imposed on trade union activities back in the 1980s. But the fact that most of these complex restrictions still remain even after years of Labour governments indicate how far apart the government and unions have grown. Trade union activists also wonder why there has been little support from the media for the many attempts by trade unions to pressurize the government to repeal anti-union laws. For example, in 2006, though supported by over a hundred MPs, the Trade Union Freedom Bill disappeared in the face of government hostility without a trace (Moher 2012). Moreover, it is hard to find any journalistic or academic appreciation of the positives and contributions made by the unions on democracy (Moher 2012). The decline in union power and influence over the workplace raise serious doubts about the prospect for unions revival and their ability to recover their position as collective bargaining institutions. There are however a number of revitalizing strategies which may be adopted by trade unions in order for them to consolidate their position. Revitalization strategies Trade unions in the UK may respond to the membership losses in various ways. The remaining unions may, for example, merge in order to consolidate resources and improve on their economies of scale (amalgamation). Other strategies which may be adopted include: formation of partnership, commitment to the organizing agenda, and using the learning agenda among many others (Kelly Frege 2004). Amalgamation In order for the unions to revitalize in the near future, they have to merge with other unions. Union mergers will help them respond to the structural changes and member composition. Additionally, this will help them to reap greater benefits from economies of scale, increasing their influence in the workplace. Partnership In future, trade unions in the UK will in the next ten years be required to justify their existence. They can for example provide evidence on how they are going to bring an added value to employers. In this respect, the concept of partnership may play a vital role. Currently, research evidence on the success of partnership at work seems somewhat divided but it is still early to determine the significance of partnership agreements (Taylor 2012). However, it is clear that majority of unions are increasingly playing a part in such agreements and that most unions have began to formalize such agreements with companies. In future, the Unions will be expected to justify themselves in terms of ‘added value’ to the workplace (Taylor 2012). Organizing agenda Additionally, unions will in the next ten years be expected to commit themselves to the organizing agenda, a key strategy for their revival (Wright 2011). Beyond recruitment, the organizing agenda serves to empower workers by giving them skills to maintain organizational strength and instilling a culture of workplace activism (Alexander Gilmore 1999). Learning agenda There is also the need for the union to deliver learning opportunities to its members besides just representing them. This is an area with much promise as the learning agenda allows trade unions to position themselves around appealing themes such as inclusion, dignity and skills improvement, thereby broadening their bargaining dialogue with employers (Wright 2011). The union will in future be expected to use the learning agenda to ensure their revitalization. Conclusion One of the most significant findings in this analysis is the changing role of trade unions and the decline in unions membership and collective bargaining power. Union membership seems to be dwindling and their collective bargaining power weakening. The change has been attributed to a range of factors, most of which have resulted from the changing nature of employee relations. Among the adversities identified as facing unionism are unfavourable political and institutional conditions, structural changes in the economy, global competition, employer sponsored forms of employee participation, legal constraints, changing societal attitudes, labour market fragmentation, enterprise bargaining, a shift to individual contracts as well as the growing trend of outsourcing among many others. A combination of these challenges seems to have precipitated a significant fall in union membership and contributed to the decline in the union’s collective bargaining power. The challenge, however, is for the unions to prevent further decline in union membership and weakening of their position. Given the downward trend in union membership, there is need for trade unions to justify their existence by adopting distinctively different roles.   This requires profound re-thinking of the roles and practices of trade unions. Reference Alexander, R. and P. Gilmore, (1999) â€Å"A strategic organizing alliance across borders†, In: M. Tillman and M.S. Cummings (eds) The Transformation of U.S. Unions. Voices, Visions and Strategies from the Grassroots, Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers Inc. pp.45-67 Anderson et al, (2002). The changing roles of public sector unionism. Working paper No. 83, pp.2-13 Bach, S. (2002), Public-sector Employment Relations Reform under Labour: Muddling Through or Modernization? British Journal of Industrial Relations, 40, 2, pp. 319-99. Bacon, N., and P. Blyton, (2004) â€Å"Trade Union Reponses to Workplace Restructuring: exploring union orientations and actions†, Work, Employment and Society, 18(4), pp. 749-773. Blanchflower, D.G., (1996). The role and influence of trade unions in the OECD. National Bureau of Economic Research and Centre for Economic Performance, LSE, pp. 5-39 Blaschke, S. (2000), Union Density and European Integration: Diverging Convergence, European Journal of Industrial Relations, 6, 2, pp. 217-36. Bryson, A., (2010). Resilient unions: strategies for growth Bryson, A., (2005). ‘Union effects on employee relations in Britain’. Human Relations, vol 58 (9), pp. 1111-1139 CIPD, (2012) Employee relations: an overview. Cox, T., and R. Mason, (2000) â€Å"Trends and developments in east central European industrial relations†, Industrial Relations Journal, 31(2), pp. 97-114. Craden, C. and P. Hall-Jones, (2012). Trade union reform change is the only constant, Ebbinghaus, (2002). ‘Trade unions changing role: membership erosion, organizational reform and social partnership in Europe’. Industrial Relations Journal, P.2-20 Farnham, D., (2000) Employee relations in context. 2nd edition. Chartered Institute of Pers. Gennard, J., (2005) Employee relations. 4th edition. Chartered Inst of Pers/Develop, pp.350-357 Kelly, J. and C. Frege, (eds) (2004) Varieties of Unionism: Strategies of Union Revitalization in a Globalizing Economy,Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kelly, J. (1998) Rethinking Industrial Relations: Mobilization, Collectivism and Long Waves, London: Routledge. pp. 35-56 Moher, J.G., 2012. Trade unions and the law history and a way forward? [Viewed on 19th November 2012] available from historyandpolicy.org/papers/policy-paper-63.html Taylor, R., (2012) The future of employment relations. An ESRC Future of Work Programme Seminar Series, pp 23-35 Wright, C.F., (2011). What role for trade unions in future workplace relations? Acas Future of Workplace Relations discussion paper series, pp.2-15

Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck Review

Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck Review John Steinbecks Of Mice and Men is a touching tale of the friendship between two men set against the backdrop of the United States during the Depression of the 1930s. Subtle in its characterization, the book addresses the real hopes and dreams of working-class America. Steinbecks short novel raises the lives of the poor and dispossessed to a higher, symbolic level. Its powerful ending is climactic and shocking to the extreme. But, we also come to an understanding of the tragedy of life. Regardless of the sufferings of those who live it, life goes on. Of Mice and Men Overview Of Mice and Men opens with two workers who are crossing the country on foot to find work. George is a cynical, irresolute man. George looks after his companion, Lennie, and treats him like a brother. Lennie is a giant man of incredible strength but has a mental disability that makes him slow to learn and almost child-like. George and Lennie had to flee the last town because Lennie touched a womans dress and hed been accused of rape. They begin to work on a ranch, and they share the same dream: they want to own a piece of land and farm for themselves. These people, like George and Lennie, feel dispossessed and unable to control their own lives. The ranch becomes a microcosm of the American underclass at that time. The climactic moment of the novel revolves around Lennies love of soft things. He pets the hair of Curleys wife, but she gets scared. In the resulting struggle, Lennie kills her and runs away. The farmhands form a lynch mob to punish Lennie, but George finds him first. George understands that Lennie cannot live in the world and wants to save him the pain and terror of being lynched, so he shoots him in the back of the head. The literary power of this book rests firmly on the relationship between the two central characters, their friendship and their shared dream. These two men are so very different, but they come together, stay together, and support each other in a world full of people who are destitute and alone. Their brotherhood and fellowship is an achievement of enormous humanity. They sincerely believe in their dream. All they want is a small piece of land that they can call their own. They want to grow their own crops and breed rabbits. That dream cements their relationship and strikes a chord so convincingly for the reader. George and Lennies dream is the American dream. Their desires are both very particular to the 1930s but also universal. Triumph of Friendship Of Mice and Men is a tale of friendship that triumphs over the odds. But, the novel is also extremely telling about the society in which it is set. Without becoming dogmatic or formulaic, the novel examines many of the prejudices at the time: racism, sexism, and prejudice towards those with disabilities. The power of John Steinbecks writing is that he treats these issues in purely human terms. He sees societys prejudices in terms of individual tragedies, and his characters attempt to escape from those prejudices. In a way, Of Mice and Men is an extremely despondent novel. The novel shows the dreams of a small group of people and then contrasts these dreams with a reality that is unreachable, one they cannot achieve. Even though the dream never becomes reality, John Steinbeck does leave us with an optimistic message. George and Lennie do not achieve their dream, but their friendship stands out as a shining example of how people can live and love even in a word of alienation and disconnectedness.

HURRICANES IN THE UNITED STATES AND OTHER GEOGRAPHICAL AREAS Research Paper

HURRICANES IN THE UNITED STATES AND OTHER GEOGRAPHICAL AREAS - Research Paper Example Hurricanes are one of the most devastating natural phenomena known to man. They are chactacterised by strong winds, storm surges, and heavy rainfalls, all of which when combined, leads to extensive loss of human life, destruction of property and ecosystems and the alteration of landscapes. Definition of hurricanes and an exploration of their formation process A hurricane is a spiralling and powerful form of a tropical cyclone, which originates from warm sea surface and then moves towards the mainland. In order for hurricanes to be formed, the sea water must have surface warmth of more than 27 degrees. This temperature level results in the release of moisture and heat into the atmosphere. As the sea moisture rises it condenses to form storm clouds. During condensation, heat (latent heat of condensation) is released into the atmosphere. It is this heat which propels the hurricane. The latent heat makes the atmospheric air warm thereby causing the air to rise further. The void left by the risen air becomes occupied by additional moist air from the surface of the ocean in a continuous, cyclical pattern. This results in the formation of a wind pattern which is circular in nature. This is what is known as a hurricane. Provided that a hurricane remains above a sea surface of 27 degrees and higher, it keeps on pulling moisture from the sea, there by becoming larger in size and in momentum. Propelled by the latent heat and wind patterns in the sea, the hurricane may then head towards land where it finally loses its momentum.